Activity 4.1 – US Environmental History and Major Regulations

 

The history of environmental thought in the United States shows how people’s views of nature have changed from something to conquer to something to protect. Over time, cultural values, science, and policy have shaped how Americans understand their connection to the environment. What started as a mindset focused on survival and expansion has turned into a belief in sustainability and shared responsibility.

In the early years, most Americans saw nature as an endless resource. Settlers cleared forests, built dams, and expanded farmland with little to no concern for the environment. Nature was viewed as something to use, not something to care for. This attitude came from the idea of “manifest destiny,” where people believed it was their duty to control and use the land. Nature was separate from human life, and progress meant domination.

By the mid-1800s, this view began to shift. Writers like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau introduced the idea that nature had moral and spiritual meaning. Their transcendentalist ideas taught that being close to nature brought peace and truth. George Perkins Marsh, in his book Man and Nature (1864), warned that humans could damage the Earth through deforestation and poor land use. His work was one of the first to show that human actions could change the planet in harmful ways.

In the early 1900s, the conservation era began. John Muir and Gifford Pinchot represented two main perspectives which are preservation and conservation. Muir believed nature should be left untouched for its beauty and spiritual value. Pinchot argued that resources could be used wisely to benefit society. Their debate influenced President Theodore Roosevelt, who created national parks and forests to protect land for future generations. This was the first time the government officially recognized the need to balance use and protection of our environment.

After World War II, industrial growth caused pollution and health problems. The modern environmental movement took shape in the 1960s and 1970s. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring exposed the dangers of pesticides and showed how human activity threatened both nature and people. Public concern led to major laws like the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Environmentalism expanded from solely protecting nature to protecting life itself.

As Russell and Fairfax (2014) explain, recent environmental thought focuses on sustainability which is the idea that economic growth, environmental protection, and social well-being must all work together. Modern challenges like climate change and resource depletion require cooperation between governments, businesses, and communities. Many states and cities now lead the way when federal action is slow, and public awareness continues to grow.

Today, environmental thinking is about connection. It’s not just about saving nature, but learning how to live responsibly within it. Sustainability asks people to think about fairness for future generations and the balance between what we take and what we give back to our environment. The journey from domination to stewardship shows that protecting the environment is also about protecting ourselves and ensuring a better future for everyone.

U.S. Federal Environmental Law Timeline (based on Theis & Tomkin 2018; Russell & Fairfax 2014)

Activity 3.3.3 – My Plastic Use

Microplastics: The Hidden Pollution Problem in Our Everyday Lives

When people talk about waste, they usually think of trash trucks picking up garbage from the curb. In environmental science, this everyday waste is called municipal solid waste (MSW). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported that in 2015, Americans produced about 262 million tons of MSW, or 4.48 pounds per person per day (EPA, 2018). While paper and yard trimmings make up large portions of this waste, the most concerning material is plastic, because it does not break down naturally. Instead, it slowly fragments into smaller and smaller pieces called microplastics, which are now found in the environment and even in our own bodies (Haab & Haab, n.d.).

What Are Microplastics?

Microplastics are tiny plastic particles less than five millimeters in size, which are roughly the size of a grain of rice. Scientists divide them into two types. Primary microplastics are made intentionally small, such as the microbeads that used to be found in cosmetics or the plastic pellets (“nurdles”) used to manufacture goods. Secondary microplastics come from the breakdown of larger plastic items like bottles, bags, and fishing gear (Haab & Haab, n.d.). Because they don’t decompose, these small fragments keep circulating through the environment for decades.

Research by Haab and Haab (n.d.) with Adventure Scientists found that microplastics are present even in remote North Country waterbodies. Their study showed that inland areas like rivers, lakes, and streams are significant contributors to plastic pollution. Rainfall, stormwater runoff, and wastewater all carry tiny plastic pieces into waterways, where they eventually flow downstream and reach the ocean. This proves that microplastic pollution starts locally but eventually spreads globally.

How Do They Get Everywhere?

Microplastics enter the environment through many normal daily activities. Washing synthetic clothing releases thousands of plastic fibers each time a load of laundry is done. Studies have found that a single wash can shed hundreds of thousands of fibers, depending on the fabric type (Dudas, 2018). These fibers move through wastewater systems and often pass-through filters that can’t catch such small particles. Larger plastics like bottles or bags also break apart over time due to sunlight and wave action, turning into micro-sized fragments that can float across oceans. Scientists have tracked these movements with GPS-equipped buoys and discovered six major ocean garbage patches, including one in the Arctic (“Charting the Garbage Patches of the Sea,” 2019).

Why Are Microplastics a Problem?

The problem with microplastics is that they’re everywhere and they simply don’t go away. Haab and Haab (n.d.) explain that microplastics can carry toxic chemicals such as heavy metals and industrial compounds. When fish, plankton, or shellfish eat them, the plastics and toxins gradually move up the food chain. People can be exposed by eating seafood, drinking contaminated water, or even breathing microscopic fibers in the air.

A recent medical report found polyethylene and PVC microplastics in more than half of artery plaques removed from patients who had surgery for clogged arteries. Those patients were more likely to suffer heart attacks, strokes, or death within a few years, suggesting possible health risks linked to inflammation (Watson, 2024). Although the study could not prove direct harm, it shows how plastic pollution may also be affecting human health, and not just the environmental quality.

What Can We Do About It?

Because microplastics are so small and widespread, cleanup isn’t realistic. Even if we stopped using plastics today, the existing pollution would last for centuries (“Charting the Garbage Patches of the Sea,” 2019). The best solution is prevention. Dudas (2018) suggests adding three new “R’s” to the old slogan: refuse, rethink, and redesign. People can refuse single-use plastics, rethink fast-fashion habits that create fiber pollution, and support redesigning products that can biodegrade or be reused. This is critical if we want to see an improvement on human and environmental health.

Conclusion

Microplastics may be small, but their impact is enormous. They move through waterways, harm wildlife, and are now part of the human environment. What started as a convenience has turned into a global challenge. The work of Haab and Haab reminds us that solving it begins close to home with the choices we make every day. By reducing our plastic use, rethinking what we buy, and supporting better design, we can each play a small role in tackling this immense problem.

My Day of Plastic

This picture shows a lot of the plastic I used in just one day. I didn’t realize how many things I use are made of plastic until I started putting them together for this photo. The Gatorade bottle, food containers, snack tubs, and even the bag under everything are all plastic. My Bombers baseball shirt is made from synthetic material too, which means it’s technically plastic as well. Most of these items are things I use without thinking, but they’ll eventually get thrown away or turn into tiny pieces called microplastics. After learning about this in Dudas (2018), it really hit me how hard it is to avoid plastic in daily life. Doing this activity made me want to reuse what I can and pay more attention to what I buy.

References

Dudas, S. (2018). Microplastics are everywhere [Video]. TEDx Binghampton University. https://youtu.be/jjsrmFUmyh4?si=GKrp0L-0LZLfaFaT

Environmental Protection Agency (EPS). (2018). National overview: Facts and figures on materials, wastes and recycling. https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/national-overview-facts-and-figures-materials

Haab, S., & Haab, K. (n.d.). The environmental impacts of microplastics: An investigation of microplastic pollution in North Country waterbodies. Adventure Scientists. https://www.adventurescientists.org/uploads/7/3/9/8/7398741/haabhaab2016_environmental_impacts_of_microplastics.pdf

Plastic Soup Foundation. (2019). Beat the microbead. https://www.beatthemicrobead.org

Van Sebille, E. (2013). Charting the garbage patches of the seas[video]. University of New South Wales.

Van Sebille, E. (2013). Charting the garbage patches of the seas[video]. University of New South Wales. https://youtu.be/M4UK9Yt6A-s?si=pst9jYU0PKDtVspb

Activity 3.3.1 Air Pollution Core Activity

 Air Pollution Basics

Sulfur Pollutants
Sulfur pollutants include gases like sulfur dioxide (SO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which come from burning fuels or processing ores that contain sulfur. Once released into the air, SO2 can react, especially in sunlight and moisture, to form sulfate ions and acidic compounds such as sulfuric acid. These create fine particles (aerosols) that reduce visibility (haze) and contribute to acid rain, damaging plant leaves, soils, and aquatic systems. Some plants show visible tissue injury at moderate SO2 levels, while others suffer “hidden injury,” meaning reduced growth without obvious symptoms (Freedman, Chap. 16).

Nitrogen Pollutants
Nitrogen pollutants, often called NOx (nitric oxide, NO, plus nitrogen dioxide, NO2), mainly arise from combustion in vehicles, power plants, and industrial processes. In the atmosphere, NO can oxidize to NO2, which may further convert to nitric acid and nitrate ions in rain or particulate form. These nitrogen compounds contribute to acid deposition, nutrient loading (eutrophication), and help form fine particles that degrade air quality. Another nitrogen gas, N2O, is more inert and has a long atmospheric lifetime, which makes it important for climate. Ammonia (NH3), from soil, fertilizer, and animal waste, also plays a role by often converting to nitrate in the air. While direct injury to vegetation is uncommon at normal levels, the chemical transformations make nitrogen gases very influential (Freedman, Chap. 16).

Hydrocarbon and Volatile Organic Compound Pollutants
Hydrocarbons (chains of carbon and hydrogen) and VOCs (volatile organic compounds) can be emitted naturally by plants and decomposition or from human activities such as fuel combustion, solvents, and evaporation. Although many VOCs at ambient concentrations are not directly harmful to vegetation or humans, they become critically important in air chemistry. In the presence of sunlight, VOCs react with NOₓ in a chain of radical-driven steps (for example, RO2 + NO → NO2 + RO), producing ground-level ozone (O3) and other oxidants. These oxidants damage cell membranes in leaves, reduce photosynthesis, and irritate human respiratory tissues and lungs. Thus, hydrocarbons and VOCs are the central “fuel” for photochemical smog formation (Freedman, Chap. 16).

 

Comparison of Current AQI

First, What is AQI?
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a scale from 0 to 500 that translates pollutant concentrations into a unified metric. Lower AQI means cleaner air; higher means more health risk. An AQI up to about 50 is “Good” 51–100 is “Moderate” and anything beyond that comes “Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups,”. The purpose is to help everyday people see at a glimpse how air might affect health­­.

At 3:00 pm, Riverside County, California, recorded the highest Air Quality Index (AQI) in the United States at 473, indicating hazardous conditions driven by extremely high particulate matter. In contrast, both San Antonio, TX, and Los Angeles, CA, reported much cleaner air with AQIs of 50, placing them in the moderate range. Ozone readings were available for San Antonio (50) and Los Angeles (44), both well within safe levels, while Riverside had no current ozone data to upload. Overall, the table shows a blunt difference between regions with severe particle pollution and those experiencing only minor or routine levels of air pollution at the same time of day.

Comparison of Current PM 2.5 and O3 (Ozone)

What is PM2.5?
PM2.5 refers to particulate matter with diameter less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers. These fine particles can bypass the nose and throat and reach deep into the lungs and even cross into the bloodstream, causing inflammation, cardiovascular stress, respiratory disease, and contributing to premature death.

What is O3 (ground-level ozone)?
Ground-level ozone is a secondary pollutant formed when NOx and VOCs react under sunlight. Unlike “good” ozone in the stratosphere, this ozone damages lung tissue, leads to coughing and shortness of breath, worsens asthma and lung disease, and impairs plant growth and agricultural yield.

References

Air Now Interactive Map

Freedman, B. (2018). Environmental science: A Canadian perspective. Dalhousie University Libraries.

Texas Commission of Environmental Quality (TCEQ)

Activity 3.2.3 – Alternative Energy – Solar Energy

 

Alternative energy refers to energy sources that can be renewed or replenished in a human time frame, such as sunlight, wind, water, geothermal heat, or biomass. These energy sources differ from fossil fuels because they are not limited and produce far fewer pollutants. As explained in the chapter reading, renewable energy comes from the sun or processes powered from it, like wind and hydro power, and if used sustainably, these resources can last for thousands of years. The concept behind alternative energy is to find ways to meet modern energy demands without running out of resources or impairing the environment.

There are many arguments for using alternative energy. The most convincing reason is that it helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions that also contribute to global climate change. A majority of renewable sources like solar, wind, and hydroelectricity produce little to no air pollution when generating electricity (Mutiti et al., 2018). For example, solar panels and small wind turbines can provide power in remote areas that are not connected to an electrical grid. Using alternative energy also lovers the risk of oil spills or coal mining accidents that can occur when forging for fossil fuels. In addition, renewable resources create new economic job opportunities through jobs in manufacturing, installation, and maintenance showing that taking care of the environment also has a plus in economic growth.

Solar energy is one of the most favorable alternatives because it can be used almost anywhere sunlight is available. It converts sunlight into electricity using photovoltaic (PV) cells or also can use solar thermal systems to heat water and air (Mutiti et al., 2018). Solar power is clean, renewable, and easy to scale from rooftops to large solar farms. However, solar energy also has its limitations. Solar energy only works when the sun is shining, so cloudy days and nights completely reduce output. The storage systems like batteries are needed to keep power available at all times or it would not be able to be stored. The manufacturing of solar panels also requires energy and chemicals, which can create environmental waste if not handled properly (Mutiti et al., 2018). Despite these challenges, the advantages of clean energy, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and long-term sustainability are what make solar one of the best options for a greener future.

 References

Mutiti, S., Mutiti, C., Manoylov, K., VandeVoort, A., & Bennett, D. (2018). Introduction to environmental science (3rd ed.). Biological Science Open Textbooks. University System of Georgia.